REVIEW ARTICLE

Tracking and tackling microplastics: A review of advances in

detection, environmental impact, and remediation approaches

Hema Krishnakumar

Environmental Resources Research Centre, Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, India

Corresponding author: Hema Krishnakumar, Email: hemakumaar@gmail.com

Journal of Experimental Biology and Zoological Studies. 1(2): p 86-93, Jul-Dec 2025.

Received: 08/06/2025; Revised: 24/06/2025; Accepted: 27/06/2025; Published: 01/07/2025

__________________________________________________________________________________

Abstract

Microplastics (MPs) are extremely small plastic debris, less than 5 mm in size, present in the

environment. They originate either from primary sources, such as microbeads, or form secondarily

through the breakdown of larger discarded plastics, including consumer products and industrial waste.

MPs have emerged as pervasive contaminants across marine, freshwater, and terrestrial ecosystems,

and are now detected in drinking water, remote environments, and a wide range of aquatic organisms.

This review consolidates current knowledge on the environmental fate, biological interactions, and

detection methodologies of MPs, with a specific focus on emerging concepts such as plastisphere

formation, biofilm development, the Trojan horse effect, and plastiglomerates. MPs act as substrates

for microbial colonization, facilitating the spread of antibiotic resistance genes and altering microbial

community dynamics. Through the Trojan horse mechanism, these serve as vectors for persistent

organic pollutants (POPs), heavy metals, and pathogenic microorganisms, thereby enhancing ecological

toxicity. Advanced detection methods including FTIR, Raman spectroscopy, and Py-GC-MS are

discussed alongside current mitigation strategies spanning mechanical, chemical, and bioremediation

techniques. Despite recent advances, challenges persist in detecting nanoplastics, standardizing

methodologies, and implementing scalable remediation approaches. The review underscores the urgent

need for interdisciplinary research, regulatory intervention, and public engagement to address the

complex and multifaceted impacts of MPs on ecosystem and human health.

Keywords: Microplastics, nanoplastics, plastisphere, biofilm, Trojan horse effect, plastiglomerates,

aquatic pollution.

__________________________________________________________________________________

Introduction

Since the onset of mass plastic production in the 1950s, over 8 billion tons of plastic have been

manufactured globally. Around 50% of this has accumulated in landfills, while only 9% has been

recycled. The remainder, much of which has ended up in aquatic environments, undergoes degradation

into microplastics (MPs) through abiotic and biotic processes. Microplastics (MPs) are plastic particles

that are less than 5 mm in size. They are either intentionally manufactured in microscopic forms such

as microbeads used in cosmetics and plastic pellets (also known as nurdles or polymer granules) which

serve as raw materials in plastic production or are formed through the degradation of larger plastic

debris. Microplastics are highly persistent in the environment and can travel through rivers, infiltrate

groundwater, and even contaminate drinking water sources, becoming part of the global water cycle.

Their miniature size allows for easy ingestion by aquatic organisms, resulting in potential

bioaccumulation and biomagnification through the food chain. Research over the last two decades

shows that MPs are all-pervasive in every part of the earth and have been highlighted as a significant

environmental contaminant.[1-3] MPs have been reported from marine ecosystems,[4] deep parts of the

oceans like the Mariana Trench[5] and freshwater ecosystems.[6,7] The presence of MPs has also been

reported in the most remote places of the earth like Himalayan freshwaters[8], deep-sea coral, sea ice

and arctic snow. An estimated 82 to 358 trillion plastic particles, weighing between 1.1 and 4.9 million

tonnes, are present in just the top foot of seawater, indicating a significant rise in plastic concentrations

since the mid-2000s.[9]

Global emissions of microplastics are estimated at 9.6 teragrams (Tg) annually.[10] Studies on the MP

concentration in the River Ganga revealed an average MP concentration of 92.85 ± 50.69 particles / m3,

with pollution levels showing a strong correlation with urbanization.[11] Additionally, MPs have been

found in groundwater systems, with concentrations ranging from 0.1 to 6,832 particles / litre, raising

serious concerns about drinking water safety and ecosystem health.[12] As a result, MP pollution has

emerged as a critical global concern. Microplastics enter aquatic environments through multiple

pathways, including: (1) wastewater effluents; (2) stormwater runoff; (3) atmospheric deposition,

wherein airborne particles settle into water bodies via precipitation; (4) industrial and maritime

activities; and (5) riverine transport from inland sources.[13]

Microplastics (MPs) have been detected in a wide array of aquatic organisms, including plankton,

invertebrates, fish, and marine mammals. Their impacts manifest at multiple levels as mentioned below.

(1) Physical impacts: Ingestion of MPs can cause internal injuries, gastrointestinal blockages, reduced

feeding stimuli,[14] and disruption of reproductive systems.[15]

(2) Chemical impacts: MPs can adsorb and transport toxic substances such as persistent organic

pollutants (POPs), heavy metals, and plastic additives like phthalates and bisphenol A.[16] These

chemicals may desorb within organisms, acting as endocrine-disrupting compounds (EDCs).[17] In

addition, aquatic microbes can colonize MP surfaces and form biofilms, potentially facilitating the

spread of antibiotic resistance genes.[18]

(3) Ecosystem-level impacts: MPs can alter physical properties of sediments, such as permeability and

porosity, thereby disrupting benthic habitats.[19] They may also reduce light penetration in coral reef

ecosystems and introduce pathogenic organisms.[20,21] Accumulated MPs hinder root aeration and soil

microbiome composition in mangroves and wetlands.[22] Furthermore, microplastics interfere with key

ecosystem processes. They disrupt trophic interactions such as predation and reproduction,[23] ultimately

leading to biodiversity loss. Some studies suggest that plastics may also affect carbon cycling by altering

the activity of phytoplankton and microbial communities critical to oceanic carbon sequestration.[24]

Furthermore, MPs in the atmosphere can directly affect cloud formation, particulate matter formation,

and accelerate climate change.[25] These findings underscore the urgent need for comprehensive waste

management strategies, improved recycling systems, and further research on the environmental and

health impacts of MPs. The existing literature on microplastics (MPs) largely focuses on their presence,

types, sources, transport mechanisms, and interactions with other contaminants. This review highlights

the catastrophic impacts of MPs in the current context, with particular emphasis on the plastisphere,

biofilm formation, the Trojan horse effect, and plastiglomerates. It also provides an overview of the

methods used for the identification, analysis, and removal of MPs, and discusses the key challenges

involved in mitigating MP contamination in aquatic ecosystems.

Catastrophic effects of MPs in the present scenario

The pervasive presence of plastics in the environment has introduced unique challenges to ecological

and biogeochemical systems. Beyond their persistence and physical impact, plastics serve as substrates

for microbial colonization, leading to the formation of "plastispheres" that can host pathogenic or

invasive microorganisms.[26] These processes facilitate biofilm development which is critical to

understanding microbial succession and pollutant dynamics on plastics.[27]

Plastics introduced into aquatic and terrestrial environments are rapidly colonized by microorganisms,

initiating the formation of biofilms.[28] These biofilms shield microbial communities from

environmental stressors and additionally act as aggregation points for gene transfer, including the spread

of antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs).[29] The physicochemical properties of plastic surfaces, including

hydrophobicity and surface roughness, influence microbial adhesion and subsequent community

structure. This biofilm matrix enhances the stability and persistence of microbial consortia, thereby

establishing long-term plastisphere communities.[30]

Bioaccumulation of MPs has resulted in another unique phenomenon - the Trojan horse effect,[31]

whereby the biofilms due to their chemical affinities adsorb and transport environmental contaminants

including heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and pathogenic microorganisms. These

pollutants, often hydrophobic, bind strongly to plastic surfaces and may be ingested by biota, leading

to internal exposure once the plastic is assimilated. In this way, plastics act as vectors for toxic agents,

bypassing natural barriers and delivering contaminants into biological systems. This effect poses serious

implications for food webs and human health. Concurrently, physical interactions between plastics and

natural materials result in plastiglomerates, hybrid formations that may further entrench plastic

pollutants within geological systems.[32] Plastiglomerates are composite materials formed when molten

plastic fuses with natural substrates such as sand, wood, or volcanic rock. First identified on beaches,

these formations exemplify the integration of synthetic polymers into natural geological processes.

They may serve as long-term reservoirs for the plastisphere and associated contaminants, embedding

anthropogenic signatures within the Earth's stratigraphy. The structural stability of plastiglomerates

suggests their potential to retain pollutants and support microbial activity over extended timescales. The

interconnected phenomena of plastisphere formation, biofilm development, the Trojan horse effect, and

plastiglomerate generation underscore the varied influences of plastics in shaping microbial ecology

and pollutant dynamics. Understanding these relationships is crucial for risk assessment and the

development of mitigation strategies in both marine and terrestrial environments.[32]

Identification and analysis of MPs in water

The accurate detection and analysis of MPs in water are foundational for assessing ecological risk,

understanding transport pathways, and developing mitigation strategies. However, due to their

microscopic size, diverse polymer composition, and occurrence within complex environmental

matrices, MPs pose significant challenges for effective detection and characterization.

Sampling methods for MPs in water

The water samples are typically filtered through membranes of varying pore sizes (0.45 µm–500 µm)

to isolate MPs. Surface water sampling is done using Neuston nets (mesh sizes 300–500 µm), to collect

floating MPs. In addition to this, grab sampling is done manually by collecting water in containers for

laboratory analysis. This method is suitable for smaller water bodies and allows detection of MPs down

to 1 µm with appropriate filtration.[33] Alternatively, groundwater samples are collected through pump

and purge techniques, and effluent composite samplers from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs).

Sample processing and pre-treatment

Before analysis, samples must be treated to remove organic and inorganic matter that may interfere with

detection. Common pre-treatment steps include (a) oxidation with hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) to

eliminate organic content; (b) density separation using solutions such as ZnCl₂ or NaCl to separate MPs

from sediments or suspended solids; (c) enzymatic digestion using enzymes such as proteinase and

cellulase for a more environmentally friendly treatment.[34]

Identification and characterization techniques

Stereomicroscopy or optical microscopy is the first step in MP identification, post-sampling. The

particles are classified based on shape viz., fibres, fragments, beads and colour. This method is

subjective and could lead to misidentification of non-plastic materials. After identification,

spectroscopic techniques like Fourier-Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR) and Raman

Spectroscopy are used to determine the polymer type. FTIR is widely used to determine polymer type

through infrared absorption spectra, and micro-FTIR allows detection of particles down to 10 µm.[35]

Conversely, Raman Spectroscopy provides a detailed molecular structure of polymers, and can detect

particles <1 µm.[36] MP identification can also be done using Pyrolysis–Gas Chromatography–Mass

Spectrometry (Py-GC-MS), where the MPs are thermally decomposed.[37] The gaseous products are

then analysed to identify the polymers. Although this method is costly, it is highly accurate and

quantitative. In Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA), weight change is measured with temperature

increase and is used to infer polymer composition.[38]

Quantification and reporting

Quantification involves counting the number of particles per volume (e.g., particles/L or particles/m³).

Complementary data such as mass, size distribution, and polymer type should also be reported.

Consistent metrics are necessary for cross-study comparisons.

Mitigation strategies

There are several mitigation techniques targeted for environmental cleanup. Conventional mechanical

collection using floating booms, nets, and skimmers are presently employed in rivers and coastal areas

to collect plastic waste. Collection of MPs using these methods is ambiguous due to lack of data. In

recent years, emphasis has been laid on bioremediation of plastics and MPs, using microorganisms as

it is considered an environmentally friendly approach when compared with traditional disposal

methods. This methodology can be very effective in mitigating many of the issues associated with

MPs,[39] but research in this area is still in its nascent phase. The common mitigation strategies (Figure

1) adopted for drinking water, storm water and surface runoff water, and waste water are given below:

Drinking water: Most municipal drinking water treatment plants remove large MPs through

sedimentation and filtration, but finer particles may remain, which require advanced filtration strategies.

Reverse osmosis, ultrafiltration, and nanofiltration are highly effective in removing sub-MPs.[40]

Activated carbon can adsorb plastic additives and associated pollutants. Furthermore, biodegradation

of MPs can be done using microbial or enzymatic agents.[1]

Stormwater: Urban runoff is a significant pathway for synthetic fibres to enter water systems.

Constructed wetlands, vegetated filter strips and permeable pavements can reduce the transport of MPs

into drainage systems. Simultaneously, retention ponds, sedimentation tanks, and filtration systems

installed at drainage outlets can intercept MPs before they reach open water.[41]

Waste water: Several mitigation procedures have been developed to address microplastic (MP)

contamination, including: (1) Conventional physical filtration in wastewater treatment plants, which

removes larger MP particles,[42] (2) Advanced treatment technologies, such as membrane bioreactors

(MBRs),[42] which combine biological treatment with membrane filtration to produce high-quality

effluent; sand filtration as a subsequent polishing step to further enhance water quality;

electrocoagulation and flotation, which aggregate MPs for easier separation; and Advanced Oxidation

Processes (AOPs), which use chemical reactions to degrade certain plastic polymers, thereby reducing

the formation of secondary MPs,[43] and (3) Sludge management strategies which capitalize on the

accumulation of MPs in sludge during treatment. Safe disposal or treatment of sludge is crucial to

prevent environmental re-entry.[44]

Figure 1: Strategies to mitigate MPs from aquatic systems

Challenges in MP detection and mitigation

Despite awareness of MPs, significant knowledge gaps exist concerning long-term ecological effects of

MPs in aquatic ecosystems. Lack of standardization protocols has been identified as the major hurdle

in MP detection. Variability in mesh size, filter material, and sample treatment can all lead to

inconsistent results.[1] Additionally, MPs smaller than 1 µm (nanoplastics) are below the detection limits

of most of the traditional methods. A gap in understanding persists concerning the cumulative and

synergistic impacts of MPs. At this moment, development of biodegradable plastic alternatives is a

critical requirement. Innovative methods such as nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and field-flow

fractionation (FFF) are being explored.[45] Future research must focus on unravelling the long-term

ecological and evolutionary consequences of plastic-associated microbial networks and their potential

effects on environmental health. Global standards are to be developed for sampling, analysis, and data

reporting. It is necessary to combine multiple analytical methods for comprehensive characterization.

Furthermore, it is imperative to invest in automation and AI tools to aid in MP particle recognition, and

innovate real-time sensing technologies such as portable FTIR/Raman devices and biosensors.

Additionally, public awareness, regulatory policies, and industry cooperation are essential to address

the root causes of plastic pollution.

Conclusion

Microplastic pollution represents a multifaceted and escalating global environmental challenge, with

far-reaching consequences for aquatic ecosystems, biodiversity, and human health. The persistence and

mobility of MPs enable them to penetrate remote environments and enter food webs at multiple trophic

levels. Their interaction with biota and environmental contaminants is further complicated by the

formation of biofilms and plastisphere communities, which enhance microbial survival and contribute

to the dissemination of antibiotic resistance genes. The Trojan horse effect exemplifies how MPs act as

vectors for heavy metals, persistent organic pollutants (POPs), and pathogens, enabling their

bioavailability and internalization by organisms. Concurrently, the formation of plastiglomerates

illustrates the physical and geological entrenchment of plastics in Earth's systems, posing long-term

ecological risks. Despite advances in detection and analytical methodologies, including FTIR, Raman

spectroscopy, and Py-GC-MS, significant challenges remain in the identification of nanoplastics and

standardization of quantification protocols. Current mitigation strategies range from mechanical

removal and filtration to advanced oxidation processes and emerging bioremediation approaches, which

hold significant promise but still require further refinement, integration, and scalability. Addressing the

MPs crisis demands a multipronged approach encompassing robust regulatory frameworks, innovative

materials research, interdisciplinary scientific investigation, and broad public engagement. Future

investigations must emphasize on long-term ecological and evolutionary impacts of MPs, particularly

their influence on microbial communities and biogeochemical cycles. Without urgent and coordinated

action, the pervasive nature of MPs threatens to redefine ecological baselines and compromise the

resilience of aquatic ecosystems for future generations.

Financial support and sponsorship:

Nil.

Conflicts of interest:

There are no conflicts of interest.

References

1. Koelmans AJ, Nor NHM, Hermsen E, Kooi M, Mintenig SM, De France J. Microplastics in freshwaters and drinking

water: Critical review and assessment of data quality. Water Research 2019;155: 410-422.

2. Osman AI, Hosny M, Eltaweil AS, Omar S, Elgarahy AM, Farghali M, et al. Microplastic sources, formation, toxicity

and remediation: a review. Environ Chem Lett 2023; 21: 2129–69.

3. Chandra S, Walsh KB. Microplastics in water: Occurrence, fate and removal, Journal of Contaminant Hydrology

2024;264:.104360.

4. Thompson RC, Courtene W, Boucher J, Pahl S, Raubenheimer K, Koelmans AA.Twenty years of microplastic pollution

research—what have we learned? Science 2024; 386 (6720).

5. Peng L, Fu D, Qi H, Q Lan CQ, Yu H, Ge C. Micro- and nano-plastics in marine environment: Source, distribution and

threats — A review. Science of The Total Environment 2020; 698: 134254.

6. Nayal R, Suthar S. First report on microplastics in tributaries of the upper Ganga River along Dehradun, India:

Quantitative estimation and characterizations. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 2022;8:100190.

7. Parolini M, Stucchi M, Ambrosini R, Romano A. A global perspective on microplastic bioaccumulation in marine

organisms. Ecological Indicators 2023:149:110179.

8. Ajay K, Behera D, Bhattacharya S, Mishra PK, Yadav A, Anoop A. Distribution and characteristics of microplastics and

phthalate esters from a freshwater lake system in Lesser Himalayas. Chemosphere 2021;283:131132

9. Ericksen M, Cowger W, Erdle LM, Coffin S, Villarrubia-Gomez P, Moore CJ, et al. Growing plastic smog, now

estimated to be over 170 trillion plastic particles afloat in the world’s oceans—Urgent solutions required. PLOS One

2023;(18(3):e0281596.

10. Evangeliou N, Tichý O, Eckhardt S, Groot Z. Sources and fate of atmospheric microplastics revealed from inverse and

dispersion modelling: From global emissions to deposition. Journal of Hazardous Materials 2022; 432:128585.

11. Rajan K. Khudsar FA, Kumar R. Urbanization and population resources affect microplastic concentration in surface

water of the River Ganga. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 2023; 11:100342.

12. Sangkham S, Islam MDA, Adhikar S, Kuma R, Sharma P, Sakunkoo Pet al. Evidence of microplastics in groundwater:

A growing risk for human health. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 2023;23:100981.

13. Upadhyay S, Sharma PK, Dogra K, Bhattacharya P, Kumar M, Tripathi V, et al. Microplastics in freshwater: Unveiling

sources, fate, and removal strategies. Groundwater for Sustainable Development 2024;26:101185.

14. Ahmad MA, Adeel M, Zain M, Rabia J. Editorial: Interaction of nano and microplastic with different plant species:

concerns and opportunities. Frontiers in Plant Science 2024; 15:1378837. DOI:

15. Wang M, Wu Y, Li G, Xiong Y, Zhang Y, Zhang M. The hidden threat: Unraveling the impact of microplastics on

reproductive health. Science of The Total Environment 2024; 935:173177.

16. Wright SL, Kelly FJ. Plastic and Human Health. Environmental Science & Technology 2017;51(12): 6634–47.

17. Ullah S, Ahmad S, Guo X, Ullah S, Ullah S, Nabi G, et al. A review of the endocrine disrupting effects of micro and

nano plastic and their associated chemicals in mammals. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023;13:1084236.

18. Perveen S, Pablos C, Reynolds K, Stanley S, Marugán J. Growth and prevalence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria in

microplastic biofilm from wastewater treatment plant effluents. Science of The Total Environment 2023;856(2):159024.

19. Li C, Zhu L, Li WT, Li D. Microplastics in the seagrass ecosystems: A critical review. Science of The Total Environment

2023;902:166152.

20. Pantos O. Microplastics: impacts on corals and other reef organisms. Emerg Top Life Sci 2022; 6(1):81-93.

21. Zhong H, Wu M, Sonne C, Lam SS, Kwong RWM, Jiang Y, et al. The hidden risk of microplastic - associated pathogens

in aquatic environments. Eco-Environment & Health 2023; 2(3):142-51.

22. John J, Nandhini AR, Chellam V, Sillanpaa M. Microplastics in mangroves and coral reef ecosystems: a review. Environ

Chem Lett 2022;20:397–416.

23. Nelms SE, Galloway TS, Godley BJ, Jarvis DS, Lindeque PK. Investigating microplastic trophic transfer in marine top

predators. Environmental Pollution 2018;238:999-1007.

24. Shen M, Ye S, Zeng G, Zhang Y, Xing L, Tang W, et al. Can microplastics pose a threat to ocean carbon sequestration?

Marine Pollution Bulletin 2020;150:110712.

25. Parvez M, Ullah H, Faruk O, Simon E, Czedli H. Role of Microplastics in Global Warming and Climate Change: A

Review. Water Air Soil Pollut 2024;235:201.

26. Bergmann M, Allen S, Krumpen T, Allen D. High Levels of Microplastics in the Arctic Sea Ice Alga Melosira arctica,

a Vector to Ice-Associated and Benthic Food Webs. Environmental Science & Technology 2023;57 (17):6799-807.

27. Cholewińska P, Moniuszko H, Wojnarowski K, Pokorny P, Szeligowska N, Dobicki W, et al. The Occurrence of

Microplastics and the Formation of Biofilms by Pathogenic and Opportunistic Bacteria as Threats in Aquaculture. Int J

Environ Res Public Health 2022;19(13):8137.

28. Wang J, GuoX, Xue J. Biofilm-Developed Microplastics as Vectors of Pollutants in Aquatic Environments. Environ Sci

Technol 2021;55(19):12780–90.

29. Perveen S, Pablos C, Reynolds K, Stanley S, Marugán J. Microplastics in fresh- and wastewater are potential contributors

to antibiotic resistance - A minireview. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances 2022;(6):100071.

30. Forero-López AD, Ardusso MG, Buzzi NS, Colombo CV, Fernández-Severini MD. Plastisphere on microplastics: In

situ assays in an estuarine environment. Chemosphere 2022; 308:136591.

31. Hildebrandt L, Nack FL, Zimmermann T, Pröfrock D. Microplastics as a Trojan horse for trace metals. Journal of

Hazardous Materials Letters 2021;2:100035.

32. Utami DA, Reuning L, Schwark L. Friedrichs G, Dittmer L, Nurhidayati U, et al. Plastiglomerates from uncontrolled

burning of plastic waste on Indonesian beaches contain high contents of organic pollutants. Sci Rep 2023;13:10383.

33. Barrows APW, Neumann CA, Berger ML, Shaw SD. Grab vs. neuston tow net: a microplastic sampling performance

comparison and possible advances in the field. Anal Methods 2017;9: 1446-53.

34. Husien S, Mahmoud AED, Ashour G, Singh S, Aguillar-Marcelino L, Ramamoorthy PC, et al. Sampling and Processing

of Microplastics from Water. In: Khan NA, Singh L, editors. Microplastic Pollutants in Biotic Systems: Environmental

Impact and Remediation Techniques. Chapter 2. Washington DC:ACS Publications. 2024. pp. 21-45.

35. Chen Y, Wen D, Pei J, Fei Y. Ouyang D, Zhang H, Luo Y. Identification and quantification of microplastics using

Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy: Current status and future prospects. Current Opinion in Environmental Science

& Health 2020;18:14-9.

36. Jin N, SongY, Ma R, Li J. Li G, Zhang D. Characterization and identification of microplastics using Raman spectroscopy

coupled with multivariate analysis. Analytica Chimica Acta 2022; 1197:339519.

37. Picó Y, Barceló D. Pyrolysis gas chromatography-mass spectrometry in environmental analysis: Focus on organic matter

and microplastics. TrAC- Trends in Analytical Chemistry 2020; 130:115964. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.trac.2020.115964

38. Sorolla-Rosario D, Llorca-Porcel J, Pérez-Martínez M, Lozano-Castelló D, Bueno-López A. Study of microplastics with

semicrystalline and amorphous structure identification by TGA and DSC. Journal of Environmental Chemical

Engineering 2022;10(1):106886.

39. Sun X-L, Xiang, H, Xiong H-Q, Fang Y-C, Wang Y. Bioremediation of microplastics in freshwater environments: A

systematic review of biofilm culture, degradation mechanisms, and analytical methods. Science of The Total

Environment 2023;863:160953.

40. Tang, K H D, Hadibarata T. Microplastics removal through water treatment plants: Its feasibility, efficiency, future

prospects and enhancement by proper waste management. Environmental Challenges 2021;5:100264.

41. Werbowski LM, Gilbreath AN, Munno K, Zhu X, Grbic J, Wu T, Sutton R, et al. Urban Stormwater Runoff: A Major

Pathway for Anthropogenic Particles, Black Rubbery Fragments, and Other Types of Microplastics to Urban Receiving

Waters. ACS EST Water 2021;1(6):1420–28.

42. Egea-Corbacho A, Martín-García AP, Franco AA, Quiroga JM, Andreasen RR, Jørgensen MK, et al. Occurrence,

identification and removal of microplastics in a wastewater treatment plant compared to an advanced MBR technology:

Full-scale pilot plant. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering 2023;11(3):109644.

43. Kim S, Sin A, Nam H, Park Y, Lee H, Han C. Advanced oxidation processes for microplastics degradation: A recent

trend. Chemical Engineering Journal Advances 2022; 9:100213.

44. Fahir H, Kevin DP, Jihan NH, Ha MB, Saravanan R, Navish K, et al. Microplastic contamination in sewage sludge:

Abundance, characteristics, and impacts on the environment and human health. Environmental Technology & Innovation

2023: 31;103176.

45. Huber MJ, Ivleva NP, Booth AM, Beer I, Bianchi I, Drexel R, et al. Physicochemical characterization and quantification

of nanoplastics: applicability, limitations and complementarity of batch and fractionation methods. Anal Bioanal Chem

2023; 415(15):3007-31.

__________________________________________________________________________________

Published by UNIZOA